Festivals and the Panchang

Also called: Makara Sankranti, Pongal, Lohri, Maghi, Magh Bihu, Bhogali Bihu, Uttarayan

When (Panchang): Sun enters sidereal Capricorn (Makara rashi). Lohri is kept on the eve before; Pongal and Magh Bihu are multi-day harvest observances centred on the same solar transit.

One of the few major festivals fixed by the Sun rather than the Moon, it marks the Sun's entry into Makara and the season of lengthening days. Communities give thanks for the winter harvest with new rice, sesame and jaggery sweets, bonfires and kites.

Also called: Basant Panchami, Saraswati Puja

When (Panchang): Shukla Panchami (fifth day of the bright fortnight) of the lunar month Magha

It welcomes the first signs of spring and honours Saraswati, the goddess of learning, music and the arts. Yellow clothes and flowers are customary, and many families begin a child's first lessons on this day.

Also called: Shivaratri

When (Panchang): Krishna Chaturdashi (14th day of the dark fortnight) of Magha in the amanta calendar, the same night as Phalguna Krishna Chaturdashi in the purnimanta calendar

The great night of Shiva is kept with fasting, night-long vigil, chanting and offerings to the linga. It is a night of inward reflection rather than celebration, observed through the four watches of the night.

Also called: Holika Dahan, Dol Jatra, Dol Purnima, Phagwa

When (Panchang): Holika Dahan bonfires on the night of Phalguna Purnima (full moon); the festival of colours follows on the next day

Holi celebrates the end of winter and the triumph of devotion over arrogance, recalled in the story of Prahlada and Holika. Coloured powder and water dissolve social distinctions for a day of shared joy.

Also called: Yugadi, Gudi Padwa, Navreh, Lunisolar New Year

When (Panchang): Chaitra Shukla Pratipada, the first day of the bright fortnight of Chaitra, which opens the new year in the amanta lunisolar calendar

It begins the lunisolar new year, and in many homes the year's Panchanga is read aloud on this day. Telugu and Kannada households share a dish blending sweet, sour, bitter and other tastes to accept every flavour of the year ahead, while Maharashtrian homes raise the gudi, a decorated pole.

Also called: Ram Navami

When (Panchang): Chaitra Shukla Navami, the ninth day of the bright fortnight of Chaitra, closing the spring (Chaitra) Navaratri

It marks the traditional birth of Rama, whose life in the Ramayana is held up as a model of duty and righteousness. Devotees read the Ramayana, sing bhajans and hold processions and temple weddings of Rama and Sita.

When (Panchang): Chaitra Purnima (full moon) in most of North India; regional traditions differ, for example in the month of Margazhi in Tamil Nadu and in Vaishakha or Margashira in parts of the Telugu and Kannada regions

It honours Hanuman, the devoted companion of Rama, as a figure of strength, loyalty and selfless service. Devotees recite the Hanuman Chalisa and offer prayers at dawn, the traditional hour of his birth.

Also called: Mesha Sankranti, Puthandu, Bohag Bihu, Rongali Bihu, Pohela Boishakh, Pana Sankranti, Vishu, Baisakhi

When (Panchang): Sun enters sidereal Aries (Mesha rashi), the start of the solar month Mesha (Chithirai in Tamil, Baishakh in Bengali and Assamese)

Regions that follow a solar calendar begin their year when the Sun enters Mesha, so many new-year festivals fall on the same day under different names. Each blends the new year with the spring harvest through feasts, new clothes, visits to elders and temple worship. In Bangladesh the Bengali new year is now held on a fixed civil date.

When (Panchang): Sun enters sidereal Aries (Mesha Sankranti), the first day of the Malayalam month Medam

Vishu marks the astronomical new year in Kerala (the Malayalam calendar year itself begins in Chingam). The first sight on waking is the Vishukkani, an arrangement of rice, gold-yellow konna flowers, fruit, a mirror and a lamp, believed to set an auspicious tone for the year; elders give small gifts of money called Vishukkaineettam.

Also called: Baisakhi, Vasakhi

When (Panchang): Sun enters sidereal Aries (Mesha Sankranti), the first day of the solar month Vaisakh

It is the spring harvest festival of Punjab, celebrated with fairs and bhangra. For Sikhs it also commemorates the founding of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, marked by gurdwara prayers and processions.

When (Panchang): The day the Moon is in Pooram nakshatra (Purva Phalguni) in the Malayalam solar month Medam

Brought together in its present form in the late eighteenth century under Sakthan Thampuran, ruler of Cochin, it gathers temples of the Thrissur area around the Vadakkunnathan Temple. Caparisoned elephants, the Kudamattam exchange of parasols, percussion ensembles and fireworks make it one of Kerala's largest temple festivals.

Also called: Ratha Jatra, Chariot Festival

When (Panchang): Ashadha Shukla Dwitiya, the second day of the bright fortnight of Ashadha

Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra are drawn on huge wooden chariots from the Jagannath Temple in Puri to the Gundicha Temple and back about nine days later. Pulling the ropes is open to all, so the festival is cherished as an occasion when the deity comes out among the people.

Also called: Vyasa Purnima

When (Panchang): Ashadha Purnima, the full moon of the lunar month Ashadha

It is a day to honour teachers and spiritual guides, and is associated with Vyasa, traditionally regarded as the compiler of the Vedas and the Mahabharata. Students and disciples offer thanks and seek blessings from their teachers.

When (Panchang): Held through the lunar month Ashadha (Ashada), on days fixed by the calendars of individual Mahakali temples

Bonalu honours the goddess Mahakali in her local forms. Women carry decorated pots of cooked rice, jaggery and curd on their heads as offerings (bonam), accompanied by drumming and processions.

Also called: Hariyali Teej, Kajari Teej, Hartalika Teej, Teeyan

When (Panchang): Shukla Tritiya of Shravana (Hariyali Teej), Krishna Tritiya of Bhadrapada in the purnimanta calendar (Kajari Teej) and Shukla Tritiya of Bhadrapada (Hartalika Teej)

Teej festivals of the monsoon are largely kept by women in honour of Parvati and her union with Shiva. They include fasting, songs, swings hung from trees, green clothes and henna, and prayers for the well-being of family and spouse.

Also called: Rakhi, Rakhi Purnima

When (Panchang): Shravana Purnima, the full moon of the lunar month Shravana

Sisters tie a protective thread (rakhi) on their brothers' wrists, and brothers pledge care and support in return. The custom now extends to cousins, friends and others regarded as family.

Also called: Janmashtami, Gokulashtami, Krishna Jayanti, Ashtami Rohini

When (Panchang): Krishna Ashtami (eighth day of the dark fortnight) of Bhadrapada in the purnimanta calendar, which is the same day as Shravana Krishna Ashtami in the amanta calendar; some traditions, notably in Kerala, give weight to the Moon being in Rohini nakshatra

It celebrates the traditional birth of Krishna at midnight in Mathura. Devotees fast until midnight, sing devotional songs and re-enact scenes from his childhood; in Maharashtra teams form human pyramids to break a pot of curd.

Also called: Thiruvonam

When (Panchang): The day the Moon is in Thiruvonam nakshatra (Shravana) in the Malayalam solar month Chingam, the climax of a festival season that begins on Atham nakshatra

Onam is Kerala's harvest festival and welcomes the annual return of the legendary King Mahabali, remembered for a reign of equality and plenty. It is celebrated with floral carpets (pookalam), the Onasadya feast on banana leaves, snake-boat races and folk dances.

Also called: Vinayaka Chaturthi, Vinayaka Chavithi, Ganeshotsav

When (Panchang): Bhadrapada Shukla Chaturthi, the fourth day of the bright fortnight of Bhadrapada

It celebrates the birth of Ganesha, the remover of obstacles and patron of new beginnings. Clay images are installed in homes and public pandals for one to ten days and then immersed in water (visarjan), often on Anant Chaturdashi.

Also called: Pitru Paksha, Mahalaya Paksha, Shraddha Paksha, Mahalaya Amavasya

When (Panchang): The dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha) of Bhadrapada in the amanta calendar, the same fortnight as Ashvin Krishna Paksha in the purnimanta calendar, ending on Mahalaya (Sarva Pitru) Amavasya

Families remember their ancestors with shraddha and tarpana offerings of water, sesame and food during this fortnight. The closing new moon is set aside for all ancestors, and in Bengal it is also observed as the invocation of the goddess before Durga Puja.

Also called: Navratri, Dussehra, Dasara, Vijayadashami, Golu, Garba

When (Panchang): Ashvin (Ashvayuja) Shukla Pratipada to Navami for the nine nights, with Vijayadashami on Shukla Dashami, the tenth day of the bright fortnight

The nine nights honour the Goddess in her many forms, and the tenth day celebrates the victory of good over evil, recalled as Durga's defeat of Mahishasura and Rama's victory over Ravana. Vijayadashami is also considered an auspicious day to begin learning or new work.

Also called: Durgotsava, Sharadotsav

When (Panchang): Main days from Ashvin Shukla Shashthi to Dashami (sixth to tenth days of the bright fortnight of Ashvin), within Sharad Navaratri

Durga is welcomed as a daughter returning home, worshipped in elaborate images and pandals, and bid farewell with immersion on Vijayadashami. Durga Puja in Kolkata is inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

When (Panchang): Nine days from Mahalaya (Pitru) Amavasya at the end of Bhadrapada to Durgashtami, the eighth day of the bright fortnight of Ashvayuja

Women build tiered arrangements of seasonal flowers in honour of the goddess Gauri, sing and dance around them in circles, and float them on lakes and ponds on the final day. It is regarded as an expression of the cultural spirit of Telangana.

Also called: Deepavali, Deepawali

When (Panchang): Amavasya (new moon) of Ashvin in the amanta calendar, the same night as Kartika Amavasya in the purnimanta calendar; the wider festival runs about five days from Dhanteras to Bhai Dooj

The festival of lights celebrates the victory of light over darkness, recalled as Rama's return to Ayodhya, Krishna's defeat of Narakasura and the worship of Lakshmi on the new-moon night. Homes are cleaned and lit with lamps, and families share sweets and gifts.

Also called: Chhath, Surya Shashthi

When (Panchang): Kartika Shukla Shashthi, the sixth day of the bright fortnight of Kartika (six days after Diwali), within a four-day observance from Chaturthi to Saptami

Chhath is devoted to the Sun (Surya) and Chhathi Maiya. Devotees keep a strict fast and stand in rivers or ponds to offer arghya to the setting Sun on Shashthi and the rising Sun the next morning, giving thanks for life and health.

Also called: Kartika Purnima, Dev Deepawali, Tripuri Purnima, Boita Bandana

When (Panchang): Kartika Purnima, the full moon of the lunar month Kartika

The full moon closing the sacred month of Kartika is kept with river bathing, lamps and temple worship. In Varanasi the ghats are lit with countless lamps, traditionally described as the Diwali of the gods, while in Odisha small boats are floated to recall the island voyages of seafaring traders.

Also called: Karthikai Deepam, Thrikarthika

When (Panchang): The day the Moon is in Krittika (Karthigai) nakshatra in the Tamil solar month Karthigai, usually coinciding with or close to the full moon

Homes and temples are lined with rows of oil lamps. At Tiruvannamalai a great beacon, the Maha Deepam, is lit on the summit of Arunachala hill, recalling the tradition of Shiva appearing as an endless column of light.

Also called: Kumbha Mela, Maha Kumbh, Ardh Kumbh

When (Panchang): Set by the positions of Jupiter and the Sun (and sometimes the Moon). As commonly described: Prayagraj when Jupiter is in Aries or Taurus and the Sun in Capricorn; Haridwar when Jupiter is in Aquarius and the Sun in Aries; Nashik-Trimbakeshwar when Jupiter and the Sun are in Leo; Ujjain when Jupiter is in Leo and the Sun in Aries. Exact rules vary between traditions and organising bodies

Pilgrims gather to bathe at the sacred rivers on auspicious days, linked in tradition to drops of amrita spilled from a pot (kumbha) during the churning of the ocean. It is among the largest peaceful gatherings in the world and is inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity; historians note that the origins and the 12-year cycle at some sites are debated.